Analysis of act 2, scene 1 Essay Example For Students

Investigation of act 2, scene 1 Essay Act II scene one will be one of the most significant scenes of the play ; not long before kicking the bucket, John of Gaunt causes a to forecast : he reveals to Richard he trusts the ruler will pass on soon and that his â€Å"shame† will outlast him (line 135). Furthermore, without a doubt, this revile works out as expected, which recommends that Richard is bound to demolition and ruin. This plainly makes Richard II a genuine Shakespearean catastrophe. This scene has, as a matter of first importance, a significant setting. It includes three spots : Ely House in London, where Richard visits Gaunt who praises England with his well known and demanding discourse : â€Å"This illustrious seat of lords, this scepter’d isle, This world of grandness, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise† (lines 40 to 43). Just as Ireland ; in this scene we discover that Richard is made a beeline for Ireland to deal with a war that broke out there. What's more, Brittany ; we discover that Bullingbrook has raised an immense armed force there and is preparing to cruise back to Britain. Furthermore, this scene shows Richard’s inactivity. Without a doubt, when Northumberland says about Richard that â€Å"Wars hath not squandered it, for warred he hath not, But basely yielded upon bargain That which his progenitors accomplished with blows. More hath he spent in harmony than they in wars.† (lines 252 to 255), it is intriguing to perceive what practices these characters find disgraceful : here Northumberland reprimands Richard for bargaining with France as opposed to battling as his predecessors did. We likewise find out about Richard towards influence in this scene : through his long discourse, from â€Å"O my liege† (line 187) to â€Å"Which respect and devotion can't think† (line 208), York clarifies that if Richard takes Bullingbrook’s inheritance by taking Gaunt’s land and riches (as they’re expected to be handed down to his oldest child, for example Bullingbrook), he will lose the devotion of his subjects. Truth be told, the principles that state Bullingbrook ought to get his dad’s land and riches are similar standards saying that rulers ought to acquire the crown from their dads. So by doing this, Richard will likewise open himself to the likelihood that somebody could tag along and take his own inheritance (that is, the title of ruler). A couple of lines later, Ross lets us know Richard has lost the certainty of his kin : â€Å"The lodge hath he pill’d with egregious charges, And very lost their hearts. The aristocrats hat h he fined For antiquated squabbles, and very lost their hearts.† (lines 246 to 248). This is significant in light of the fact that we know this influences Richard, despite the fact that he says the assessment of the individuals don’t sway him somehow. Another subject of this scene is the topic of anguish. As Ross states â€Å"We see the very wrack that we should endure, And unavoided is the risk now For torment so the reasons for our wrack.† (lines 267 to 269), he says that Richard’s bombing choices have prompted horrendous results â€in this case discussing the take of Bullingbrook’s inheritance†yet that the aristocrats have permitted it to occur. In this section the meaning of ‘suffering’ changes : in the main line the significance is the ordinary, present day English one, however in the third line it implies ‘to allow’. So we have here another case of how detachment prompts calamity. Language and correspondence is also a significant viewpoint here. After Gaunt conveyed his long discourse disclosing to Richard how he’s destroying England and afterward passes on, Northumberland says about him that â€Å"His tongue is currently a stringless instrument. Words, life and all old Lancaster hath spent.† (lines 149,150). By depicting Gaunt’s demise along these lines, Northumberland fortifies the connection among language and life, and stresses the way that by coming clean with Richard about himself, he â€Å"spent† his life. This shows how language can be over the top expensive in this play : coming clean costs something here. .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 , .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 .postImageUrl , .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 .focused content region { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 , .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4:hover , .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4:visited , .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4:active { border:0!important; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 { show: square; change: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-progress: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; obscurity: 1; change: haziness 250ms; webkit-progress: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4:active , .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4:hover { darkness: 1; change: mistiness 250ms; webkit-progress: mistiness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 .focused content zone { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: striking; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-design: underline; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; text style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; fringe sweep: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; textual style weight: intense; line-stature: 26px; moz-fringe range: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-embellishment: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-stature: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0 fa8d4b295c4 .focused content { show: table; stature: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u28c7d8adb39056f70b9a0fa8d4b295c4:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: 1929 Stock Market Crash EssayIn this scene, York additionally moves toward the topic of family. Without a doubt, through his words â€Å"His face thou hast, for even so looked he, Accomplished with the quantity of thy hours. However, when he scowled it was against the French And not against his friends.† (lines 176 to 179), he ominously thinks about Richard to his dad ; despite the fact that they truly appear to be identical, his dad had great characteristics Richard needs, particularly with regards to rebuff his foes rather than his companions. When the scene closes, we have educated of the inevitable attack of England by Bullingbrook’s powers ; a snippet of data which, with what we definitely think about Bullingbrook’s notoriety and Richard’s justified disagreeability with the English ordinary people, infers as of now the specific result : Richard’s statement and destruction because of Bullingbrook. The perfect of a decent authority set forward in this play â€as well as in a considerable lot of Shakespeare’s plays†is by all accounts dependent on a methodical, completely incorporated connection between the ruler, the individuals and the land ; partitioning the realm is in any capacity an exceptionally poorly conceived notion. To close, this scene consolidates a few significant subjects and occasions of the play : Gaunt’s judgment followed by his demise, Bullingbrook’s up and coming cruising back to Britain, Richard’s passionately faithful uncle York’s self-doubting procedure which will in the long run drive him to Bullingbrook’s side, just as the nearness of the topics of resignation, influence, enduring, language and correspondence, and family. And these angles make this scene noteworthy to the play.

Foss and Crowdsourcing free essay sample

The oddity of firm interest in open-source programming. [Online]. Accessible: http://scholarworks. sjsu. edu/org_mgmt_pub/3. Gotten to: 14 April 2013 PASCALE, T. , CHANAL, V. , PELISSIER, C. 2009. Publicly supporting as an approach to get to outside information for advancement. Control, motivating force and coordination in half breed types of development. [Online]. Accessible: http://hal. chronicles ouvertes. fr/docs/00/36/73/73/PDF/TrompetteChanalPelissierEGOS. pdf. Gotten to: 14 April 2013 HUBERMAN, B, A. , ROMERO, D, M. , WU, F. 2008. Publicly supporting, Attention and Productivity. Publicly supporting for Information Retrieval. Combination: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies Copyright  © 2008 Sage Publications London, Los Angeles, New Delhi and Singapore Vol 14(1): 75â€90 DOI: 10. 1177/1354856507084420 http://cvg. sagepub. com Crowdsourcing as a Model for Problem Solving An Introduction and Cases Daren C. Brabham University of Utah, USA OUTSOURCING TO AN UNKNOWN WORKFORCE: EXPLORING OPENSOURCING AS A GLOBAL SOURCING STRATEGY1 By: Par J. Agerfalk†Department of Information Science Computer and Systems Science Uppsala University Uppsala SWEDEN standard. [emailprotected] uu. se Brian Fitzgerald Lero †The Irish Software Engineering Research Center University of Limerick IRELAND [emailprotected] We will compose a custom exposition test on Foss and Crowdsourcing or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page ie MIS Quarterly Vol. 32 No. 2, pp. 385-409/June 2008 Free/Libre and Open Source Software: Survey and Study FLOSS Deliverable D18: FINAL REPORT Part 4: Survey of Developers Rishab A. Ghosh Ruediger Glott Bernhard Krieger Gregorio Robles International Institute of Infonomics University of Maastricht, The Netherlands June 2002  © 2002 International Institute of Infonomics, University of Maastricht and Berlecon Research GmbH The first form of this report is accessible at http://www. nfonomics. nl/FLOSS/report/FLOSS-US THE FREE/LIBRE/OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE SURVEY FOR 2003 Paul A. David Andrew Waterman Seema Arora HTTP://WWW. STANFORD. EDU/GROUP/FLOSS-US/* THE AUTHORS MAY BE CONTACTED AT THE E-MAIL ADDRESS: [emailprotected] EDU STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA, USA SEPTEMBER, 2003 Government Policies Supporting Open Source Software for the Mass Market Stefano Comino Dipartimento di Economia, Universit'a di Trento, Via Inama 5, 38100 Trento, Italy E-mail: [emailprotected] unitn. it Fabio M. Manenti Dipartimento di Scienze Economiche â€Å"M. Fanno†, Universit'a di Padova, Via del Santo 33, 35123 Padova, Italy E-mail: fabio. [emailprotected] it 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Imprinted in the Netherlands.  © 2006 Wired Magazine Issue 14. 06 June 2006 http://www. wired. com/wired/file/14. 06/crowds_pr. html The Rise of Crowdsourcing Jeff Howe Open source softwareâ€â€an assessment Alfonso Fuggetta A. Fuggetta/The Journal of Systems and Software 66 (2003) 77â€90 Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities  © European Communities, 2009 Review of Learning in ICT-empowered Networks and Communities Kirsti Ala-Mutka JRS logical and specialized reports Revitalizing Computing Education Through Free and Open Source Software for Humanity By Ralph Morelli, Allen Tucker, Norman Danner, Trishan R. de Lanerolle, Heidi J. C. Ellis, Ozgur Izmirli, Danny Krizanc, and Gary Parker The philanthropic focal point of socially valuable undertakings guarantees inspiration for network disapproved of students all through software engineering.  © ACM, (2009). This is the author’s form of the work. It is posted here by authorization of ACM for your own utilization. Not for redistribution. The authoritative rendition was distributed in CACM, {52, 8, (August 2009) http://doi. acm. organization/10. 1145/1536616. 1536635 .  © 2003 Elsevier Science B. V. All rights saved. Extraordinary issue on open source programming advancement Georg von Krogh a,? , Eric von Hippel b,1 an Institute of Management, University of St. Gallen, Dufourstrasse 48, St. Gallen CH-9010, Switzerland b Sloan School of Management, MIT, 50 Memorial Drive, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA The Open Source Definition by Bruce Perens (determination) http://perens. com/OSD. html Michal Sroka MTF STU 2007/2008 Diary of Strategic Information Systems 16 (2007) 236â€253 The open source programming marvel: Characteristics that advance research q Georg von Krogh *, Sebastian Spaeth ETH Zurich, Department of Management, Technology, and Economics, Kreuzplatz 5, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland Accepted 21 June 2007 Available online 13 August 2007 Why Open Source programming can succeed_ Andrea Bonaccorsi? , Cristina Rossi1 Laboratory of Economics and Management, Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies, P. zza Martiri per la Liberta 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy Research Policy 32 (2003) 1243â€1258

Unemployment Scenario in Australia

Question: Talk about the joblessness rate, types, issues, and government approach of Australia and remark joblessness in different conditions of Australia. You have to determine in various district like NSW, WA, Tasmania, Qld or SA. Answer: Presentation The joblessness issue is a significant issue of all creating and created countries. Because of the joblessness, the prosperity of the individuals is influenced adversely. Joblessness alludes to joblessness. As the individuals are jobless, they have less cash to purchase products and ventures. The joblessness happens when the interest for laborers is not exactly the quantity of laborers accessible in the market (Pigou 2013). On the off chance that this component 'continues for a significant stretch, at that point it turns into the worry of the approach producers of the economy. They target decreasing the pace of joblessness. The higher pace of joblessness is a significant issue, since it regularly prompts social turmoil. In an economy, there stays a joblessness rate even in the condition of full business. This is known as regular pace of joblessness (Shimer 2012). In this manner, there is no worry about the normal pace of joblessness. Joblessness rate past this level turns into the wo rry for the economy. A few sorts of joblessness exist. The joblessness creates from a few elements. Some of the time the joblessness is short run in nature and now and again the joblessness is long haul (Woodbury and Davidson 2012). Diverse nation faces various kinds of joblessness and the components influencing the joblessness situation are distinctive in the individual nations. In view of the idea of joblessness, the legislatures of the nations demonstration appropriately. This paper will talk about the joblessness rate in Australia. It will distinguish the kinds of joblessness and issues identified with the joblessness in this nation. The paper will concentrate on joblessness situation of different states in Australia, for example, Western Australia; New South Wales; Tasmania; Queensland and South Australia. In addition, the administration arrangements of this nation so as to deal with the joblessness issues will be talked about. Joblessness Theory The term jobless alludes to those individuals who are willing and ready to work at winning compensation rate however unfit to get a new line of work for an extensive period. The work power established by number of utilized and number of jobless individuals. The work power doesn't consolidate those individuals who are not willing work at the current compensation rate and stay jobless (Schenk 2013). Just the automatically jobless individuals are thought of. The pace of joblessness is determined by the accompanying way: Joblessness Rate= (Number of automatically jobless Labor Force) 100 There are commonly three kinds of joblessness, for example, auxiliary joblessness; repetitive joblessness and frictional joblessness. The frictional joblessness happens when the laborers scan for new openings or move from one employment o another. This sort of joblessness consistently exists in an economy somewhat. It requires some investment for the laborers to look through a vocation they like or to change their current employment (Wagner 2014). Additionally, after consummation of training, new works enter the market to get a new line of work. Therefore, for the time-being this kind of joblessness happens in an economy. The repeating joblessness happens when the joblessness rate changes as per the adjustment in the business pattern of the economy (Argy and Nevile 2016). When there is absence of interest, the economy goes into the recessionary stage. During this time, numerous employments are lost and joblessness rate increments. Also, when the economy begins to recoup, new interest is created and the organizations require more works to build its creation (Diamond 2013). Because of this individuals get recruited and joblessness rate decays. The auxiliary joblessness happens because of absence of interest for specific kinds of laborers. The explanation for this is there is confound between the abilities of the laborers and the expertise prerequisite of the businesses. This ability hole emerges commonly because of the adjustment in innovation of creation. Advance innovation lessens the prerequisite of untalented work and requests for the new sorts of works who are gifted. In addition, the employments might be off-shored due to the accessibility of modest work abroad. Hence, joblessness happens as the structure of the economy changes and as the abilities become old (Kahn 2015). The frictional joblessness isn't of much worry for the economy and it is present moment in nature. There is no such measure to lessen this sort of joblessness; in any case, it must be guaranteed that the progress period isn't so long. The residency of the repeating joblessness relies upon the force of the business movement. On the off chance that the downturn is profound, at that point the recurrent joblessness will continue for an extensive stretch (Enderwick, Manzetti, Mavrotas, Shorrocks and Motamen-Samadian 2015). Along these lines, the strategy creators should concentrate on improving the financial exercises so as to produce request. By improving the financial movement, repetitive joblessness can be diminished. The joblessness that is basic in nature is the most serious. This sort of joblessness is long haul and must be decreased by connecting the expertise holes (Carrre, Grujovic and Robert-Nicoud 2015). Changing the abilities obtained by the work by giving them appropriate pre paring will prompt improve the circumstance of the economy. The recuperation procedure likewise takes extensive time. Thus, basic joblessness is the significant worry of an economy and the strategy creators. Joblessness Rate in Australia In this paper, a specific period has been considered for the examination of joblessness in Australia. From 2000 to 2016, the information has been gathered to help the conversation. The joblessness rate has been taken for the long stretch of March every year. In the accompanying table, the general joblessness pace of this nation has been spoken to. Table 1: Overall Unemployment Rate YEAR Joblessness Rate 2000 6.9 2001 6.8 2002 6.7 2003 6.4 2004 5.7 2005 5.4 2006 5.1 2007 4.7 2008 4.3 2009 6.0 2010 5.7 2011 5.2 2012 5.5 2013 6.0 2014 6.2 2015 6.5 2016 6.0 In the accompanying figure, the adjustments in the paces of joblessness have been spoken to graphically. In 2000, the joblessness rate was very high, be that as it may, in the accompanying time frame the rate has fallen constantly. In 2008, it has arrived at its most minimal level. All things considered, during the time of budgetary emergency, the rates again have begun to rise. In the accompanying time frame, the rates varied and again it has expanded to 6% and much more since 2013 up to this point (Abs.gov.au, 2016). In any case, the joblessness rate has not arrived at the elevated level of mid 2000s. The general joblessness rate in this economy has demonstrated a descending slanting pattern, which implies that the pace of joblessness in this nation has fallen after some time. Figure 1: Overall Unemployment Rate in Australia The paper will currently investigate the joblessness rate in a portion of the conditions of this country. Joblessness paces of New South Wales (NSW); Queensland; South Australia; Western Australia and Tasmania has been considered for the examination. It will be confirmed whether the joblessness patterns of these states are like that of the general joblessness pace of this nation. In the accompanying table, the joblessness information of New South Wales has been given. Table 2: Unemployment Rate in New South Wales YEAR Joblessness Rate (NSW) 2000 6.0 2001 5.7 2002 6.4 2003 6.0 2004 5.5 2005 5.8 2006 5.1 2007 5.1 2008 4.5 2009 6.9 2010 5.7 2011 5.3 2012 4.9 2013 5.8 2014 5.5 2015 6.2 2016 5.4 The accompanying figure speaks to the adjustments in joblessness paces of the New South Wales. In the underlying time frame, the joblessness pace of this state vacillated around a significant level. Since 2006, the rate began to decay. During 2008, the joblessness rate was least; be that as it may, in the time of worldwide money related emergency, this rate has definitely expanded. In the accompanying time frames, the rate has diminished yet continued fluctuating around a significant level. The joblessness pattern is descending inclining yet it is compliment and practically level. It shows that the rate has fallen yet just by a littler sum. The joblessness rate stayed stale at more elevated level. Figure 2: Changes in Unemployment Rate of New South Wales In the accompanying table, the joblessness information of Queensland has been given. Table 3: Unemployment Rate in Queensland YEAR Joblessness Rate (QSL) 2000 8.4 2001 8.9 2002 8.2 2003 8.2 2004 6.7 2005 4.9 2006 5.3 2007 4.4 2008 4.1 2009 5.4 2010 6.1 2011 6.1 2012 6.1 2013 6.5 2014 6.7 2015 7.2 2016 6.7 The in the mid 2000s the Queensland experienced noteworthy degree of joblessness. The rate has declined and turn out to be most minimal in the 2008. In any case, in Queensland, the joblessness rate has tirelessly indicated an ascent. At present, the rate is a lot higher in this state. In spite of the fact that the pattern of this state is descending inclining, showing fall in the pace of joblessness; the estimations of the pace of joblessness is as yet higher. Figure 3: Changes in Unemployment Rate of Queensland In the accompanying table, the joblessness information of South Australia has been given. Table 4: Unemployment Rate in South Australia

Tips To Get Good Papers Writing Help Online

Tips To Get Good Papers Writing Help OnlineGetting help with your paper's writing can be a daunting task. If you are writing papers in college or university, then there is a great chance that you are very nervous and if this is the case then it is time to seek out good papers writing help from a professional tutor.The most important thing about getting papers written is that it is your duty as a student to show all the important points. Papers should not only represent your thoughts but it should also be able to present a good structure to your essay. As such it is essential that you look for the right papers writing help online. Even though there is a plethora of papers writing software out there, they are all not equal.So, when you need to write papers then it is recommended that you first do some research on what type of papers writing software you should choose. If you are a college student, then it is suggested that you look for a college essay software which will make the job o f the writing easier.There are several good ways to find out information about such software. First of all there are websites that provide free online research about such software. It is very easy to search these websites for free.Finding reviews from these websites will give you an idea on whether you should go for a particular writing tool or not. If you find that some writers have reviewed certain software then this is the time to try out the software and see if it suits your personality traits. If it does not work for you then you can get in touch with them and ask for a second opinion.Another good idea is to check out the writing styles of the professionals who have reviewed the software. If they are reviewing it as a professional, then it will also serve as a guide to go by.Online discussion boards are another great way to get information. These forums are packed with information and forums usually give hints and tips on how to improve your writing style. So just spend some ti me in these forums and get a good idea on how to approach a writing task.

Modern Day Temperature Measurement Devises And Their Uses

Relevance Three examples of modern day temperature measurement devises and their uses: Scientific Theory ïÆ'Ëœ Explain the science behind how a mercury thermometer works using the particle model. When a mercury thermometer or any type of thermometer comes into contact with a heated or cooled object the kinetic energy of the molecules of the thermometer heats o cools to match the objects temperature. The thermometer normally has a liquid substance such as mercury or alcohol that will expand when heated. The molecules move faster taking up more space causing the liquid in the thermometer to expand and rise to show the liquids substance temperature. Also the molecules bounce against each other harder and harder which is pushing†¦show more content†¦The first thermometer used had the same basics as today using a glass test tube and mercury or coloured alcohol. The draw backs of the thermometer went back to 400 years ago when the inventor Galileo created a thermometer to measure the temperature of water. ïÆ'Ëœ What is the difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer? The difference between thermoscope and a thermometer is that a thermometer measures heat and has a scale that determines the actual temperature where as a thermoscope is an earlier version of a thermometer which doesn’t have a scale which meant that you could only tell that the temperature was decreasing or increasing. Also a thermoscope doesn’t let you know the actual temperature which means in experiments if you use a thermoscope the experiment will not be accurate. ïÆ'Ëœ Explain how the Fahrenheit scale was developed and when. The Fahrenheit scale was invented by a German physicist named Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit who the scale was named after. In 1714 the first modern thermometer as developed which was the mercury thermometer with more advanced measurements than all of the other thermometers created. The original Fahrenheit scale was not entirely accurate because it did not give an accurate calibrate. The Fahrenheit temperature scale ranged from 212 degrees (boiling point of water on this scale) to 32 degrees (boiling point on

William Shakespeare s Much Ado About Nothing

Shakespeare was a very famous playwright in the 1500’s. He started off as an actor in 1590 and he worked his way up to being a shareholder; which means that he owned a proportion of the company and he could still be a part in the plays. Later in 1599 when The Globe Theater was built, he moved there and was a shareholder. During these times he wrote several plays for the theater. Some of these include Much Ado about Nothing, Twelfth Night, Love’s Labour’s Lost, and A Midsummer s Night’s Dream. In the year 1600, Shakespeare wrote the play Much Ado about Nothing. Later the following year, in 1601, Shakespeare wrote a Twelfth Night. In many ways these two plays are similar with the aspects of the differences of power between the upper and†¦show more content†¦So Malvolio thinks Olivia actually loves him. He goes to Olivia and professes his love for her. She, having no clue about this plan, thinks that Malvolio is mad. She got the other servants to co me and take him away from her. This example shows that even though Olivia, being the upper class figure in this situation, and having the control to remove Malvolio, it was the servants that caused the ordeal to take place. This reveals that the lower class has power. It may not be as obvious as living in a mansion with servants, money, and authority, but they can still alter situations even when not in full complete power. Now, compare that to the situation in Much Ado about Nothing. Although the Main Characters are predominantly apart of the royal family, that didn t stop Don John from making Claudio believe that Hero was unfaithful. He used Borachio to make love to Margaret, Hero’s servant, in Hero’s bedroom window. Don John got Don Pedro and Claudio to witness this account. Don John is not one of the plays central characters, but he completely twisted and changed the plot. He deceived the two men as well as the whole rest of the royal family making them all believe that Hero was having an affair. That being said, leads to the next comparison which is betrayal. In both plays there is a major betrayal that takes place. In the Twelfth Night, Sebastian was saved from the shipwreck by Antonio. Antonio cares so much for Sebastian that he followed him

Financing Of the Disney Project Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Questions: 1.What sources of funds are there that Disney can use for the expansion? 2.What are the costs associated with getting capital for the expansion? Answers: 1.The sources of funds that Disney can use for its expansion are discussed below;- Equity Financing Equity ?nancing is the best source of fund for Disney for its expansion. In equity financing Disney will need to exchange a portion of its ownership of business for the financial investment in the business. The ownership stake resulting from an equity investment allows the investor share in the Disneys pro?ts. Equity involves a permanent investment in the company and is not repaid by the Disney at a later date Preference shares Disney can also issue preference shares for funding its expansion. Preference shares issued by Disney will have a fixed percentage ofdividendwhich is paid to the ordinary shareholders. If Disney issues ordinary shares then preference dividend will be paid only if sufficient distributable profits are available, however if Disney issues 'cumulative' preference shares then right to an unpaid dividend will be carried forward by Disney to later years. The arrears of dividend on cumulative preference shares must be paid by Disney before it pays any dividend to the ordinary shareholders.(Philips, 2014) Debentures Another source of fund available to Disney is Debenture. Debentureis a certificate of acceptance of loans which is given under the Disney's stamp and it will carry an undertaking that the debenture holder will get a fixed return (fixed on the basis of interest rates) and the principal amount whenever the debenture matures. It is issued for a long periods of time. Debentures can be freely transferrable by the debenture holder. Debenture holders will have no voting rights and the interest given to them by Disney is a charge against profit.(2014, ANZ) Bank loan Another source of fund for Disney is borrowing from Bank. Disney can borrowfrom bank on short term, medium term or long term as per its requirement. Disney will have to pay interest on such borrowing. This interest may be fixed or variable. Disney if takes a long term loan then it will be required to security or collateral for the loan.(hall, 2012) Leasing Disney can also fund its expansion by leasing. A lease is an agreement between two parties, the "lessor" and the "lessee". The lessor owns a capital asset, but allows the lessee to use it. The lessee makes payments under the terms of the lease to the lessor, for a specified period of time. Leasing is, therefore, a form of rental. Leased assets have usually been plant and machinery, cars and commercial vehicles, but might also be computers and office equipment. There are two basic forms of lease: "operating leases" and "finance leases".(Business, 2015) 2. Weighted Average Cost of Capital(WACC) is the arithmetic average (mean) capital cost, where the contribution of each capital source is weighted by the proportion of total funding it provides. WACC is usually expressed as an annual percentage. Cost of Borrowingsimply refers to the total amount paid by a debtor to secure a loan anduse funds, including financing costs,account maintenance, loan origination,and other loan-related expenses. A cost of borrowing sum will most likely be expressed in currency units such as dollars, pounds, euro, or yen. Cost of Debtis the overall average rate an organizationpays on all its debts,typically consisting primarilyof bonds and bank loans. Cost of debt is expressed as an annual percentage. Cost of Equity(COE) is a part of a company's capital structure. COEmeasuresthe returnsdemanded bystock marketinvestors who will bear the risks of ownership. COE is usually expressed as an annual percentage.(Wyka, 2014) Cost of Fundsrefers to the interest cost that financial institutions pay for the use of money, usually expressed as an annual percentage. Hence it could be said that these above sources could help the project Disney to get the required resources that it would be needed to finance the entire project of the company as a whole. The sources highlighted here consists of the major sources that are available in the case of the finance of the various projects that are being used to growth of the company and help the company to expand in the current scenario and arrange the funds without any distress.(UELAND, 2011) Bibliography 2014, A. R. (n.d.). ANZ. 1-1. Business, B. (2015). banks. 1-1. hall, A. (2012). 5 Ways of Funding A Business: How To Get Your Piece Of The Pie. Forbes , 1-2. Philips, R. (2014). Antisense Therapeutics. Answer , 1-1. UELAND, S. (2011). 13 Crowdfunding Websites to Fund Your Business. Practical Ecommerce , 1-1. Wyka, S. (2014). Biomass Project Financing Solutions in Today's Difficult Capital Markets. Biomass , 1-1.

Wwii Atomic Bombs Essays - Atomic Bombings Of Hiroshima And Nagasaki

Wwii Atomic Bombs WWII Atomic Bombs When the atomic bomb went off over Hiroshima on Aug. 6th, 1945, 70,000 lives were ended in a flash. To the American people who were weary from the long and brutal war, such a drastic measure seemed a necessary, even righteous way to end the madness that was World War II. However, the madness had just begun. That August morning was the day that heralded the dawn of the nuclear age, and with it came more than just the loss of lives. According to Archibald MacLeish, a U.S. poet, What happened at Hiroshima was not only that a scientific breakthrough . . . had occurred and that a great part of the population of a city had been burned to death, but that the problem of the relation of the triumphs of modern science to the human purposes of man had been explicitly defined. The entire globe was now to live with the fear of total annihilation, the fear that drove the cold war, the fear that has forever changed world politics. The fear is real, more real today than ever, for the ease at which a nuclear bomb is achieved in this day and age sparks fear in the hearts of most people on this planet. According to General Douglas MacArthur, We have had our last chance. If we do not devise some greater and more equitable system, Armageddon will be at our door. The decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japanese citizens in August, 1945, as a means to bring the long Pacific war to an end was justified-militarily, politically and morally. The goal of waging war is victory with minimum losses on one's own side and, if possible, on the enemy's side. No one disputes the fact that the Japanese military was prepared to fight to the last man to defend the home islands, and indeed had already demonstrated this determination in previous Pacific island campaigns. A weapon originally developed to contain a Nazi atomic project was available that would spare Americans hundreds of thousands of causalities in an invasion of Japan, and-not incidentally-save several times more than that among Japanese soldiers and civilians. The thousands who have died in the atomic attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were far less than would have died in an allied invasion, and their sudden deaths convinced the Japanese military to surrender. Every nation has an interest in being at peace with other nations, but there has never been a time when the world was free of the scourge of war. Hence, peaceful nations must always have adequate military force at their disposal in order to deter or defeat the aggressive designs of rogue nations. The United States was therefore right in using whatever means were necessary to defeat the Japanese empire in the war which the latter began, including the use of superior or more powerful weaponry-not only to defeat Japan but to remain able following the war to maintain peace sufficiently to guarantee its own existence. A long, costly and bloody conflict is a wasteful use of a nation's resources when quicker, more decisive means are available. Japan was not then-or later-the only nation America had to restrain, and an all-out U.S. invasion of Japan would have risked the victory already gained in Europe in the face of the palpable thereat of Soviet domination. Finally, we can never forget the maxim of Edmund Burke: The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is that good men do nothing. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought us into a war which we had vainly hoped to avoid. We could no longer do nothing but were compelled to do something to roll back the Japanese militarists. Victims of aggression have every right both to end the aggression and to prevent the perpetrator of it from continuing or renewing it. Our natural right of self defense as well as our moral duty to defeat tyranny justified our decision to wage the war and, ultimately, to drop the atomic bomb. We should expect political leaders to be guided by moral principles but this does not mean they must subject millions of people to needless injury or death out of a misplaced concern for the safety of enemy soldiers or civilians. President Truman's decision to deploy atomic power in Japan revealed a man who understood the moral issues at stake and who had the courage

Reading Response for Street Car Named Desire Essay Example

Reading Response for Street Car Named Desire Essay Example Reading Response for Street Car Named Desire Essay Reading Response for Street Car Named Desire Essay Essay Topic: A Streetcar Named Desire Not only did he give it a name that provokes subtle intrigue, but what the title represents and the literary meaning that could be read into its meaning stay true to the plot, settings, and characters In the play. One can imagine the scenes one sees as he/she is riding along In a streetcar. Through the dirty wavy glass, the life and goings-on outside seem surreal. The character Balance sums It up well when attempts to explain herself to Mitch, l dont want realism. I want magic! Yes, yes, magic! I try to give that to people. I serpentine things to them. I dont tell truth, I tell what ought to be truth. (Williams, Scene Nine, Pl 17) In the play the audience may never see the real truth. Like life, there are several versions to choose from and the most real Is seldom seen through one snap-shot perspective, tainted by dirty glass. The second physical manifestation of a streetcar that resounds throughout the play Is the incredible noise and racket they produce as they pound their way across the tracks, ringing their bells. The surroundings in the play are constantly filled with literal and advertorial noise. From the constant playing of the blue piano and chatter of individuals in the neighborhoods to the utter chaos of the characters lives and relationships; this streetcar fills the play with noise. Most interesting is how Balance came to arrive in New Orleans both factually and figuratively on a streetcar named Desire. Balance never recovered from the noise of her youth. From the way she was treated by others to the devastating loss of her love, she was driven to the point of self-delusion and destruction. Her mental instabilities, driven by her desires, caused her to be cast into exile by her home town and most of the people she knew. The streetcar continues on, unrestricted by fantasy or opinion. Tennessee does not hold back on how dark desire can be. Although most of the dark noise that happens, such as Stanley beating his wife and raping Balance, seems to be attributed to alcoholism (a desire to escape reality? ), the play still shows much of the petty selfishness, lusts, and greed we all might experience as we travel along on our own streetcars.

Poet Gwendolyn Brooks Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Poet Gwendolyn Brooks - Research Paper Example (Bigsby 23) At the age of seventeen, she started to publish poem regularly. As a first black woman, she served the position of â€Å"poetry consultant to the Library of Congress† and â€Å"poet laureate of the State of Illinois† (Gates 2). Among the Brookss works, lots of are written regarding to the â€Å"civil rights activism† of contemporary society. George E. Kent, the provider of Dictionary of Literary Biography, says that she holds an exceptional place in American literature (30). In Modern Black Poets: A Collection of Critical Essays, Richard K. Barksdale mentioned that the poems in A Street in Bronzeville and Annie Allen that won Pulitzer Prize, are loyal to miniature and abrupt representation â€Å"of the black urban poor† (Kufrin 67). Maud Martha, the detail about black woman’s existence in a short form and the first and only novel by Brooks, published in the 1950. Another remark about Maud Martha by David Littlejohn, in his Black on White : A Critical Survey of Writing by American Negroes, reflects that it is an outstanding human research (Littlejohn 78). In the â€Å"New York Times Book Review†, Toni Cade Bambara stated that when she was fifty years old â€Å"something happened to Brooks† and readers can get the evidence of that in â€Å"In the Mecca† and later works (Poetry Foundation). While Brooks’ poems â€Å"The Mother†, â€Å"The Crazy†, â€Å"Sadie and Maud†, and â€Å"To be In Love† comparatively work out the theme of a woman’s awkward, restricted and subservient situation in the society, in contrast, the poem â€Å"the Independent Man† upholds a man’s freedom (Evans 38). But all these five poems together highlight the inferiority of woman and the awkwardness and the inertia that a woman feels in the male dominated society. Though Gwendolyn Brooks’s poetry shows a strong commitment to her racial identity her poetic bent plays out a tone of universality through common daily

Marketing and the Apple global organization Research Paper

Marketing and the Apple global organization - Research Paper Example The history of Apple Inc. dates back to the early 1970’s when Steve Jobs along with Ronald Wayne and Steve Wozniak established the technology firm. Apple is presently headquartered in California, USA. The company together with its subsidiaries develops and markets laptops, portable music players, desktop computers, mobile communication devices and several other gadgets. Apple has a global presence and functions with around 370 Apple exclusive stores. As of 2011 the company employed 60,400 people throughout the world (â€Å"Apple Inc.†). Some of the evident products that have made Apple one of the biggest technical giants of the world are I-Phone, I-Pad, I-Pod and various software products. The Mac OS X in the software category has been able to revolutionize the computing experience of the users. If reports are to be believed, within few years from now the company will be launching I-car, a four wheeler car with unique style and design resembling the official logo of App le. From the days of its inception Apple is highly sensitive towards its marketing strategies. The company tactically develops its business strategies for the purpose of retaining and gaining customers. This is the reason why we find Apple launching new products in every 2-3 years. Apple mainly distributes its product through whole sellers, retailers and Apple owned exclusive stores. The company has large number of competitors in direct and indirect form. Hewlett Packard, Dell, Google and Research in Motion Limited are the direct competitors of the company (â€Å"AAPL Competitors†).... In this article the author discussed about the unique marketing initiatives of Apple Inc. Furthermore the article highlighted some interesting facts about the company. In the introduction part of the article the author demonstrated about the hype that Apple creates before launching a product in the market place. To cite an instance it showcased how the brand loyal customers of Apple spend a night outside an Apple store, just for the purpose of buying the new product from the company. The article offered a number of unique marketing strategies of the company. Some of the evident among them are as follows: - Apple has been long facing issues with the product knowledge of its sales staffs. This problem made it more complex for the company to notify the potential customers about the unique features that it offers. Hence the company decided to open ‘a store just for Apple’ or an Apple exclusive store. In this article it has been also highlighted that the products of Apple com es in the form of a complete package, so that users do not have to search for any add-ons. In accordance to this statement the author mentioned the example of I-Pod and free music via Apple I-tunes. The product strategy of the company has been also emphasized in this article. Apple uses a varied product strategy, in which they offer various portable gadgets at a low cost to the consumer, with a feeling that these customers may consider buying an Apple computer in the near future. The author also clearly explains about the extensive research and development that the company carries out for the purpose of offering quality products. Furthermore in the article few promotional

Copper Corrosion Essay Example for Free

Copper Corrosion Essay In this experiment, I will be testing the corrosion rate of copper wire after leaving them in different liquids with different pH levels. By doing so I will be able to determine which pH level corrodes copper the fastest. I will conduct this experiment by pouring 250mL of different liquids with different pH levels in cups, followed by an iron strip placed into the cup. A stopwatch will be timing how long it takes the iron strip to fully corrode. The cups will be placed in the same environment right next to each other in order for the cups to be in the same temperature. All of the cups will be the same type of cup to make sure the cups won’t have a role determining the results. There will be three trials for each type of liquid. This will ensure the most accurate results. The pH level will be tested with a strip of litmus paper to determine the official pH level of the liquid. The stopwatch will start as soon as all of the copper wire are placed into the cups. I will be watching the cups, taking note of any qualitative data I see. When I see that the iron strip in one of the cups is fully covered in rust, I will record the time that was on my stopwatch. To analyze the data I will first find the average pH level for each of the liquids. Then I will average the total time it took for the copper wire to corrode. This data will be in hours. To see if there was any correlation between the independent variable and dependent variable, I will create a graph with the time it took the copper wire to corrode as the y-axis and the pH level as the x-axis. Hypothesis: If the pH level is more acidic, than the iron strip will corrode at a faster rate. Independent Variable: pH level of liquids Dependent Variable: rate of corrosion of iron strip Control: pH of 7 (Tap water) Constants: †¢ Same amount of liquid in each cup (50mL) †¢ Same sized copper wire (5x3/4x3/64) †¢ Same type of cup †¢ Cups placed in same temperature †¢ Cups placed in same environment Materials: †¢ 12 copper wire †¢ 4 see through cups †¢ 150mL of vinegar †¢ 150mL of bleach †¢ 150mL of tap water †¢ 150mL of hydrogen peroxide †¢ Litmus paper †¢ Stop watch †¢ Sharpie †¢ Paper towel Procedure: 1. On the see through cups, label which liquid will be poured into them 2. Pour 50mL of the liquids into their corresponding cups. 3. Put litmus paper into each liquid to get official pH level. Record pH level. 4. Place iron strip into liquid, making sure it is completely surrounded by liquid 5. Start stopwatch as soon as the copper wire are placed into cup. 6. Observe the copper wire. Record down the time whenever one of the copper wire is fully covered in corrosion. 7. Once all the times are recorded empty the cups and rinse them out with water. 8. Repeat steps 2-7 two more times. 9. Find the average time it took to corrode the iron strip. Abstract: I will be testing how pH levels of liquids affect the corrosion rate of an iron strip. The independent variable for this experiment is the pH level of the liquid. I will be using four different liquids, each having a different pH level. I will be using tap water, which is neutral; salt water, which is generally slightly basic; bleach, a very basic liquid; and vinegar, a very acidic liquid. The tap water will serve as my control. Having a variety of pH levels helps to give me a better perspective on how much of a factor pH level is on corrosion rate. The dependent variable will be the time it takes the iron strip to fully corrode. The unit for this measurement will be minutes.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Essay -- Health

Many women that become pregnant are unaware of the consequences of drinking alcohol during pregnancy and the damaging effects it has on the fetus. When a woman who is pregnant drinks alcohol, the baby is also drinking alcohol. Furthermore, the amount of alcohol that is consumed by the mother is the same amount the baby receives through the mother's placenta. Many doctors advise that it is okay for the mother to have an occasional drink, however, some women cannot stop at one drink, and they continue to drink in excess throughout their pregnancy. Still, even moderate consumption of alcohol is not wise, because it is still unknown how much alcohol the fetus is able to tolerate without potential harm. Consequently, a fetus that has been exposed to alcohol while in the mother's womb has a high probability of being born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Women that want to become pregnant or are pregnant need to be educated on the effects that alcohol can have on the fetus and the devastating result of having a child born with FAS. Fetal alcohol syndrome was first discovered and treated in the late 1960's in France and a few years later in the United States. This syndrome results from the toxic effect of alcohol and its chemical factors on the developing fetus and brain (Christensen 1). According to many physicians and researchers, FAS is one of the leading causes of birth defects and developmental disabilities, along with Down syndrome and spina bifida in the U.S. Moreover, FAS is said to be the number one cause of nonhereditary mental retardation (Christensen 1). Out of each 10,000 children born in the U.S., between 3 and 30 suffer from FAS. The overwhelming effects of this condition can easily be prevented if the mothe... ...s work, but exactly how it happens is still under investigation. The research continues on the nutritional, hormonal and cellular events regulating fetal development to help guide early interventions in children with FAS. Education on FAS should come from the woman's doctor or a mandatory motherhood class, which could be provided at the physician's office, teaching the importance of taking care of the baby's health during pregnancy. If a woman chooses not to take her baby's welfare into consideration while she is pregnant, this should be considered gross negligence and should incur high penalties. The consequences of knowingly hurting the fetus could result in being imprisoned for a specific amount of time, rehabilitation if warranted, and or community service at a county facility that houses people who have mental and or physical problems that stem from FAS.

The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidenceâ€Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification

Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 DOI 10. 1007/s10979-009-9192-x ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidence–Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification James Sauer ? Neil Brewer ? Tick Zweck ? Nathan Weber Published online: 22 July 2009 O American Psychology-Law Society/Division 41 of the American Psychological Association 2009 Abstract Recent research using a calibration approach indicates that eyewitness confidence assessments obtained immediately after a positive identification decision provide a useful guide as to the likely accuracy of the identification.This study extended research on the boundary conditions of the confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship by varying the retention interval between encoding and identification test. Participants (N = 1,063) viewed one of five different tar- gets in a community setting and attempted an identification from an 8-person target-present or -absent lineup either immediately or several week s later. Compared to the immediate condition, the delay condition produced greater overconfidence and lower diagnosticity.However, for choosers at both retention intervals there was a meaningful CA relationship and diagnosticity was much stronger at high than low confidence levels. Keywords Eyewitness identification Confidence–accuracy Retention interval Calibration Criminal justice systems often use eyewitness identifica- tion evidence when assessing the likely guilt of a suspect or defendant. Yet, the likelihood of eyewitness identification error is well documented by laboratory- and field-based research demonstrating that, when presented with a lineup J.Sauer N. Brewer (&) T. Zweck N. Weber School of Psychology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia e-mail: neil. [email  protected] edu. au Present Address: J. Sauer Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK and asked to make an identification decision, witnesses sometimes (a) misidentify innocent lineup members as the culprit or (b) fail to identify the culprit when (s)he is present in the lineup (Cutler & Penrod, 1995; Innocence Project, 2009; Pike, Brace, & Kynan, 2002; Wells et al. , 1998). Such dentification errors divert investigative attention from the actual culprit and are likely to under- mine the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. Their impact has motivated a substantial amount of research aimed at identifying markers capable of discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. Eyewitness confidence is one possible marker of iden- tification accuracy that has been used by forensic decision makers. Not only has confidence been endorsed by the U. S. Supreme Court as one of the criteria to be considered when assessing the likely accuracy of identification evidence (Neil v.Biggers, 1972) but there is also a substantial literature demonstrating that eyewitness confidence influences assessments of likely identification accuracy made by police officers, lawyers, jurors, and jury-eligible samples (e. g. , Bradfield & Wells, 2000; Brewer & Burke, 2002; Cutler, Penrod, & Stuve, 1988; Deffenbacher & Loftus, 1982; Lindsay, Wells, & Rumpel, 1981). Moreover, there are sound theoretical grounds for pre- dicting a meaningful confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship for eyewitness identification decisions, which are a form of recognition memory decision.A number of theories of decision making and confidence processing—such as signal detection theory (Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Mac- millan & Creelman, 1991) and accumulator models of decision making and perceptual discrimination (Van Zandt, 2000; Vickers, 1979)—suggest a shared evidential basis for response and response confidence in recognition memory tasks. Both classes of theory hold that confidence stems from the same evidence that drives the decision-making ? 123 338 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?process and, consequentl y, conditions facilitating accurate responding (e. . , long exposure durations, focused atten- tion, short retention intervals) should also produce high confidence. Conversely, conditions that hinder accurate responding should also lead to decreased confidence. Although there have been repeated demonstrations of weak or, at best, modest, CA correlations (e. g. , Bothwell, Deffenbacher, & Brigham, 1987; Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995), empirical support for the diagnostic utility of eyewitness identification confidence—under certain con- ditions—has grown (e. g. Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin, Olsson, & Winman, 1996; Lindsay, Nilsen, & Read, 2000; Lindsay, Read, & Sharma, 1998; Sauer, Brewer, & Wells, 2008; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2004). Continued research interest in the CA relationship has been stimulated by two lines of enquiry suggesting that the early correlational work underestimated the CA relationship. First, Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) arg ued that the homo- geneity of encoding and testing conditions (e. g. , exposure duration, witnesses’ attention to the target stimulus, retention interval, etc. evident in most correlational investigations of the CA relationship for eyewitness iden- tification tasks restricts variation in the quality of participants’ memories for the target. Thus, variations in accuracy and confidence are constrained, and the CA relationship underestimated. Lindsay et al. demonstrated substantial CA correlations across participants making a positive identification when witnessing conditions were varied to produce changes in the quality of the witness’ memory for the target.Second, Juslin et al. (1996) argued that the point-biserial correlation provides only a limited perspective on the CA relationship, whereas an alternative approach—calibra- tion—provides (a) a more detailed representation of the CA relationship and (b) more forensically useful information. The cal ibration approach compares the objective and sub- jective probabilities of a response being correct, determining the proportion of correct responses at each confidence level (typically measured on 0–100% scale).Perfect calibration is obtained when, for example, 100% of all responses made with 100% confidence are accurate, 90% of all responses made with 90% confidence are accurate, etc. This informa- tion is typically plotted on a graph, with the resulting calibration function compared to the ideal function, to assess the CA relationship. In addition to visual inspection of the curve, the calibration approach incorporates a number of statistical tools for assessing the CA relation. First, the cal- ibration (C) statistic indexes the degree of correspondence between the subjective assessment (i. e. confidence) and the objective probability (i. e. , accuracy) of correct recognition, and varies from 0 (perfect calibration) to 1. To calculate the C statistic, the difference between proportion correct and confidence level is computed, and squared, for each confidence level. These values, each multiplied by the number of judgments at the respective confidence level, are then summed and divided by the total number of judgments in the sample. Second, the computation of an over/under- confidence (O/U) statistic indicates the extent to which participants are, generally, more or less confident than they are accurate.The O/U statistic is calculated by subtracting the mean accuracy from the mean confidence of the sample. The O/U statistic can range from -1 to 1, with negative and positive scores indicating underconfidence and overconfi- dence, respectively. Finally, resolution (like the CA correlation) assesses the extent to which confidence dis- criminates correct from incorrect decisions. The Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) ranges from 0 (no discrimination) to 1 (perfect discrimination).The forensic utility of the cali- bration approach, when compared to correlati on, lies in its indication of probable accuracy for each level of confidence. As Juslin et al. (1996) note, the knowledge that the CA correlation is, for example, . 28 does not help assess the accuracy of an individual identification made with 80% confidence. On the other hand, knowing that 80% (or 70, or 90%) of identifications made with 80% confidence are cor- rect provides a guide for assessing the likely reliability of an individual identification decision.Studies using the calibration approach have not only provided detailed information on the CA relationship but, in so doing, have also demonstrated robust CA relation- ships when participants positively identify a lineup member as the culprit (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009), provided confi- dence is assessed immediately after the identification is made (Bradfield, Wells, & Olson, 2002; Brewer, Weber, & Semmler, 2007). The reason for the poor CA relations typically observed for non- choosers remains unclear.However, it is well understood why delaying the assess- ment of confidence is harmful to the CA relation. As outlined above, the relationship between memory quality, confidence, and accuracy is fundamental to the CA rela- tionship. However, confidence can be shaped not only by memory quality but also by various social, environmental, and meta-cognitive influences (see Wells, 1993). As the influence of these non-memorial factors increases, the degree to which confidence reflects the evidential basis it shares with accuracy decreases and, in turn, the CA relation weakens.Research testing the boundary conditions for CA cali- bration is under way. The difference in CA relations for choosers and non-choosers, and the deleterious effects of delaying assessments of confidence on the CA relationship, are well documented. Brewer and Wells (2006) examined the effects on CA calibration of varying instructional bias, foil similarity, and target-absent base rates, while Weber and Brewer (2003) tested the effect of varying the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 339 confidence scale on CA calibration in basic face recogni- tion tasks. The present study further probes the boundary conditions for CA calibration by investigating the effects of varying the retention interval between encoding and the identification test on the CA relationship. Retention interval is a variable of particular interest for three main reasons. First, witnesses to actual crimes com- monly experience delays ranging from hours to months between viewing an event and being asked to make an identification decision. For example, Pike et al. 2002) report UK survey data revealing a median delay of over 10 weeks between police requesting and administering a lineup, although they noted that more conservative esti- mates put the average delay at just over a month. Regardless, it seems safe to assume that the average retention interval for the witness (i. e. , between viewing the c rime and viewing the lineup) is longer. In contrast, retention intervals employed to date in laboratory-based investigations of CA calibration for eyewitness (e. g. , 15 min in Brewer & Wells, 2006) and face recognition memory tasks (e. . , 3–10 min in Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006) are considerably shorter and less varied in range. Juslin et al. ’s (1996) CA calibration study provides an exception by employing 1 h and 1 week retention intervals, and their findings are addressed below. The emphasis placed on confidence by decision makers in the forensic setting makes understanding the effect of length- ened delays on the efficacy of confidence in discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions a matter of forensic significance.Second, theories of recognition and recall memory function suggest that, in general, the quantity, quality, and/ or accessibility of information stored in memory decreases over time. This claim is supported by a large body of research literature demonstrating that, across a variety of memory task paradigms, increases in retention interval generally produce decreases in recognition and recall memory performance (e. g. , Deffenbacher, Bornstein, McGorty, & Penrod, 2008; Ebbinghaus, 1964; Schacter, 1999). Thus, variations in retention interval should produce variations in accuracy.While memory strength is the pro- posed basis for both confidence and accuracy (e. g. , Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Macmillan & Creelman, 1991) and, hence, variations in memory strength should affect both components of the CA relationship, it is unclear whether the effects on confidence and accuracy will be equivalent. Previous research demonstrates that changes in accuracy are not always accompanied by equivalent changes in confidence (e. g. , Weber & Brewer, 2004) and, further, that various manipulations can influence confi- dence, and the CA association, independent of effects on accuracy (e. . , Busey, Tunnicliff, Loftus, & Loftus, 2000). Investigations of the CA relation for eyewitness recall memory suggest that repeated questioning produces con- fidence inflation (Shaw, 1996; Shaw & McClure, 1996). For recognition memory, providing post-identification feedback, encouraging witnesses to reflect on whether their encoding conditions were likely to facilitate or hinder identification accuracy, and having witnesses consider their behavior during the identification process all produce variations in the CA relation, without affecting accuracy (e. g. , Bradfield et al. 2002; Brewer, Keast, & Rishworth, 2002; Kassin, 1985; Kassin, Rigby, & Castillo, 1991). In sum, it is clear that despite the strong theoretical link between confidence, accuracy, and memory strength, non- memorial factors can lead to CA dissociation. Thus, while the effect of increased retention interval on memory strength (and accuracy) is predictable, the effect of increased retention interval on CA calibration is not. Third, while numero us studies have investigated the effect of varied retention interval on recognition and recall memory accuracy (see Deffenbacher et al. 2008 for a review), studies probing the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship are scarce. Lindsay et al. (1998) varied retention interval, but it was manipulated in conjunction with a number of other variables in an effort to exert a compounded effect on memory quality. Further, they assessed the CA relation using correlation and, thus, their findings do not allow specific predictions regarding CA calibration (see also Lindsay et al. , 1981). As men- tioned above, Juslin et al. varied retention interval and found no ifference in CA calibration for identifications made after retention intervals of 1 h and 1 week. However, Juslin et al. ’s investigation is limited in two important ways. First, their manipulation of retention interval exerted a negligible effect on accuracy (correct identification rates were . 69 and . 64 fo r the 1 h and 1 week conditions, respectively). Thus, there is no evidence that participants’ memories were challenged by the additional delay, and these findings are unable to speak to the effect of delay- induced memory degradation on CA calibration. Juslin et al. resented an additional CA calibration curve, based on a different dataset from that described in the article, which (a) combined data from a 1 week and 3 month retention interval condition and (b) suggested a meaningful CA relation in the upper half of the confidence scale. However, for three reasons, this curve is not informative regarding the effect of retention interval. First, the exper- imental methodology and data underpinning this curve remain (to our knowledge) unpublished. Second, the absence of any accuracy data precludes an assessment of any decline in memory associated with the increased retention interval.Third, derivation of a calibration curve given such a small sample required collapsing data acros s retention interval conditions, and no indication was given of the relevant contribution of data from each retention 123 340 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?interval condition. Thus, we have no way of knowing to what extent this curve reflects the influence of either the shorter or longer of the two retention intervals. Simply put, Juslin et al. ’s initial manipulation of retention interval was not strong enough to affect memory quality, and the introduction of the additional data did not overcome this limitation.Second, after presenting a lineup but prior to making an identification decision, Juslin et al. (1996) had participants rate their confidence that any lineup member was presented at encoding. Brewer et al. (2002) found that having par- ticipants consider encoding conditions prior to rating confidence improved CA calibration. In a similar way Juslin et al. ’s initial rating task may have aided calibration. For example, if a participant rates the likeli hood that a lineup member was present at encoding as high, (s)he is likely to pick and do so with high confidence.Alterna- tively, if (s)he rates this likelihood as low but still chooses, confidence (and accuracy) is likely to be low. This pre- decision rating task may have improved CA calibration. Further, other research suggests that encouraging witnesses to consider confidence prior to making an identification can alter the decision making process and decision accuracy (e. g. , Fleet, Brigham, & Bothwell, 1987). In addition to these two major limitations, two idiosyn- crasies in Juslin et al. ’s (1996) methodology may have affected the CA relation observed.First, Juslin et al. used a target-absent base rate of . 25, rather than the . 50 base rate typical of eyewitness CA calibration research (and used in this research). While there is no reason to assume a . 50 target-absent base rate in the applied setting (with the typ- ically used . 50 target-absent base rate perhaps re presenting a considerable overestimation), differences in the target- absent base rate affect CA calibration (Brewer & Wells, 2006). Second, the researchers provided instructions on calibration and interpretation of the confidence scale.Prior to eliciting confidence estimates, Juslin et al. informed participants that a positive identification accompanied by a confidence estimate of 0% amounted to a contradiction. While this logic may be sound, positive identifications are sometimes made with very low (even 0%) confidence, and this instruction may have influenced participants’ confi- dence estimates and, consequently, the CA relationship observed. Taken together, these differences are sufficient to raise doubts about the generalizability of Juslin et al. ’s findings.Specifically, given that accuracy was barely affected by the manipulation, and that the rating task and lower target-absent base rate may have enhanced calibra- tion and reduced underconfidence (cf. Brewer e t al. , 2002; Brewer & Wells, 2006), Juslin et al. ’s (1996) study does not represent an adequate test of the effect of increased reten- tion interval on CA calibration. CA calibration in Juslin et al. ’s shorter retention interval condition was already strong. Thus, any over-estimation of the CA relation resulting from Juslin et al. s methodology would most likely also manifest in the longer retention interval, increasing the likelihood of obtaining similar CA relations across conditions. CA calibration research in the eyewitness identification area is in its infancy. The paucity of research in this area is understandable given the large number of participants required to generate stable estimates of CA calibration. Indeed, most of what is currently understood in this area relies on laboratory research using a limited range of stimulus materials. Only one study has previously exam- ined CA calibration using a field study methodology (Sauerland & Sporer, 2009).The pres ent research advances understanding of the CA relationship in three main ways. First, we used the CA calibration approach to examine the effect of retention interval on the CA relation, contrasting the CA relation for a virtually immediate identification test with that for one conducted between 3 and 7 weeks after the encoding event (and producing lower identification accuracy). Second, we used five different sets of encoding and test stimuli and, third, we tested the robustness of the CA relation in a field setting that provided varied and more realistic encoding conditions (cf.Lindsay et al. , 1998). METHOD Design A 2 (retention interval: immediate test versus delayed test) 9 2 (target-presence: present versus absent), between- subjects design was used to test the effect of varied retention interval on the confidence–accuracy relationship using multiple target stimuli in a field setting. Participants A total of 1,063 (548 female) participants provided data for this research . Participant ages ranged from 15 to 85 (M = 29. 21, SD = 14. 33). A functional grasp of the Eng- lish language was the only prerequisite for participation. MaterialsPhotographs of the target were cropped to present the individual, from the shoulders up, against a plain white/ gray background, and were approximately 55 mm 9 55 mm in size. Non-target (i. e. , foil) photographs were selected from our laboratory’s large database using a match-description strategy, with foil selection requiring agreement between the researchers and the experimenter from each pair that the foils matched the target’s 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 341 ?description. In sum, five different sets of target-present and target-absent lineups were constructed.For each target, identical foils were used for target-present and -absent lineups. Target-absent lineups were created by replacing the target with another foil photograph. However, as dis- cussed in the ‘‘Resultsâ€℠¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ section, because the designation of individual foils as target-replacements was arbitrary, the target-replacement is not analogous to an innocent suspect. Procedure Ten female, third-year honors psychology students col- lected data as part of a work experience course-component. The 10 students split into pairs with one acting as the researcher and the other as the target.Targets were of either Caucasian or Mediterranean appearance. Data were collected at various locations ranging from on-campus to city streets to parkland areas. While the target remained out of sight, the researcher approached members of the public (individually) and asked if they would like to participate in a psychology experiment. If the individual agreed, the researcher signaled to her partner who moved into the participant’s view, and remained in view for 10 s. Targets were viewed at a pre-measured distance of 10 m, and participants were instructed to attend to the target for the full 10 s.Afte r encoding, participants were allocated to either an immediate or delayed testing condition. Data were obtained from 691 participants in the immediate condition and from 372 participants in the delayed condition (i. e. , only about 55% of participants approached in the delayed condition responded). Participants in the immediate con- dition were asked to perform an identification task. The researcher read the following instructions to the partici- pant: ‘‘I’m now going to ask you to try and pick the person you just saw out of a group of photographs on this sheet†¦ ’ The researcher then presented the participant with a laminated piece of A4 paper displaying eight, clearly numbered, color photographs organized into two rows of four faces. The instructions continued: ‘‘The person may or may not be present in the lineup. If you think the person is not present, please say ‘not present’. Please indicate the number of the person who is the person you have just viewed’’. The researcher then recorded the participant’s response, asked the participant to indicate their confidence in the accuracy of their response on an 11-point scale (0–100%), and collected some demographic information.Participants in the delayed condition provided an email address and were contacted approximately 18–21 days after encoding, and provided with a link to an online data collection system. Actual retention intervals ranged from 20 to 50 days (M = 23, SD = 5). When entered into the system, participant email addresses were matched to the relevant researcher/target pair to ensure that each partici- pant viewed the correct lineup for their target stimulus. Participants accessed the online system and were presented with instructions generally identical to those reported above.However, rather than indicating responses verbally, participants in the delayed condition made identification decisions by either (a) c licking the photo of the lineup member they believed to be the target, or (b) clicking a button labeled ‘‘Not Present’’ at the bottom of the screen. Similarly, participants entered their confidence estimate by clicking one of eleven on-screen buttons representing the levels of confidence indicated above. Participants in the delayed condition were asked for the same demographic information as those in the immediate condition.Target- presence was counterbalanced in both the immediate and delayed conditions to achieve an equal number of target- present and -absent trials. RESULTS Retention Interval and Accuracy Chi-square analyses performed on response accuracy for the delayed and immediate conditions found predictable effects of retention interval for both choosers, v2(1, N = 614) = 11. 59, p . 001, w = 0. 14, and non-choosers, v2(1, N = 449) = 13. 85, p. 001, w = 0. 18.In both cases, accuracy was greater in the immediate condition (62 and 82% for choosers a nd non-choosers, respectively) than in the delayed condition (47 and 66% for choosers and non- choosers, respectively). Thus, the effect of increased retention interval on identification accuracy was consistent with the expected reduction in memory quality. As found by Juslin et al. (1996) and Sauerland & Sporer (2009), accuracy rates for non-choosers were significantly higher than for choosers in both the immediate, v2(1, N = 691) = 32. 24, p . 001, w = 0. 22, and delayed condi- tions, v2(1, N = 372) = 13. 4, p . 001, w = 0. 19. The present non-chooser accuracy and diagnosticity data (see below) lend support to previous research demonstrating that lineup rejections can inform assessments of the likely guilt of a suspect (e. g. , Clark, Howell, & Davey, 2008; Wells & Olson, 2002). Retention Interval and the CA Relation To enhance the stability of the plotted CA calibration functions, confidence data were collapsed from the 11 initial confidence categories (i. e. , 0–100%) t o five (i. e. , 0– 20%, 30–40%, 50–60%, 70–80%, 90–100%) (see Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996).Moreover, because foils are known in advance to be innocent, we excluded target- 123 342 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?present, foil identifications from our calibration analyses (see Brewer & Wells, 2006). However, as there was no actual police suspect in the target-absent lineups, all false identifications of foils from target-absent lineups were included in calibration analyses, a practice that necessarily inflates the degree of overconfidence. 1 Table 1 presents the distributions of confidence ratings for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed conditions, according to identification response.Given the well-documented differences in the CA rela- tion for choosers and non-choosers, we present CA calibration analyses separately for these two groups (see Tables 1 and 2, and Fig. 1). In both retention interval conditio ns, meaningful CA relationships for choosers are apparent. Visual inspection of choosers’ CA calibration functions (Fig. 1) shows increasing accuracy as confidence increases for both retention intervals. Moreover, in the upper section of the confidence scale, the immediate and delayed condition curves are almost identical.While reli- ance on visual inspection may appear to lack rigor, the standard error bars for each confidence interval permit an estimation of the stability of the results obtained. Over- lapping standard error bars (evident for the two highest confidence intervals of the chooser curves) denote non- reliable differences between groups. Table 1 presents the diagnosticity ratios for each con- fidence category. Diagnosticity ratios indicate the likely reliability of an identification decision, in this case, according to the level of confidence expressed.Chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the likelihood that a guilty suspect will be identified to the likelihood that an innocent suspect will be identified. The procedure for separating suspect from foil identifications from target-absent lineups is complex. In contrast to the forensic setting, the labora- tory setting provides no basis for designating any particular member of a target-absent lineup as the suspect (cf. Brewer & Wells, 2006). Accordingly, we calculated target-absent suspect identification rates by dividing the total number of target-absent false identifications by the number of lineup members (i. e. , eight).Non-chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the probability that the witness responds not- present, given the target is not-present, to the probability that the witness responds not-present, given the target is present. Both retention interval conditions show increased diagnosticity at each successive confidence interval. Thus, when a suspect is identified, an increase in witness 1 Including only target-replacement identifications as false identifi- cations from target-absent lineups resulted in only 13 and 6% (in the immediate and delayed conditions, respectively) of all target-absent misidentifications being available for calibration analyses.Split over the five confidence intervals, these data is insufficient to provide stable estimates of calibration. Table 1 Diagnosticity ratios and number of responses (according to response type) for each confidence interval, for choosers and non- choosers in the immediate and delayed testing conditions ? Condition & response Confidence level (%) 0–20 30–40 50–60 70–80 90–100 Overall Immediate—choosers Correct 5 identification Foil identification 1 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticityratio 6. 68 SEDiagnosticity 2. 71 Delayed—choosers Correct 1 identificationFoil identification 5 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 56 SEDiagnosticity 1. 66 Immediate—non-choosers Correct rejection 6 Incorrect rejection 4 Overall 10 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 01 SEDiagnosticity 0. 57 Delayed—non-choosers 12 40 103 90 250 6 18 12 4 41 13 31 43 18 114 31 89 158 112 405 8. 87 11. 08 18. 74 37. 79 17. 80 2. 40 1. 91 2. 56 8. 61 1. 49 5 16 39 38 99 5 8 9 3 30 11 25 24 10 79 21 49 72 51 208 4. 02 6. 28 13. 63 20. 47 10. 12 1. 83 1. 52 2. 63 6. 23 1. 11 11 42 91 84 234 2 10 22 14 52 13 52 113 98 286 4. 68 3. 91 4. 23 6. 35 4. 44 5. 91 1. 31 0. 89 1. 71 0. 0 Correct rejection Incorrect rejection Overall Diagnosticity ratio SEDiagnosticity 5 10 25 41 27 108 2 9 16 14 14 55 7 19 41 55 41 163 1. 48 1. 01 1. 23 2. 79 2. 87 1. 92 1. 62 0. 35 0. 30 0. 74 0. 76 0. 25 ? confidence is accompanied by an increase in the probability that the identified suspect is guilty. There are, however, some differences apparent between the two retention interval conditions for choosers. A modified jackknife procedure (Koriat, Lichtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1980; Mosteller & Tukey, 1968) was performed on the C, O/U, and NRI statistics obtained for each rete ntion interval condition.The jackknife procedure involves repeated calculation of each of the three statistics above, with each calculation omitting data from a different, individual participant. As many calculations are run as there are participants. This permits the calculation of mean and standard error data (Table 2) for the statistics obtained which, in turn, allows an assessment of differences in the relevant measures between groups. While these jackknife mean and standard error data cannot be subjected to inferential testing, they are intended to allow researchers to ? 123Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 343 100 80 60 40 20 Table 2 Calibration (C), overconfidence (O/U), and Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) statistics, for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed testing conditions Measure Statistic C Value Jackknife SE O/U Value Jackknife SE NRI Value Jackknife SE Choosers Non-choosers Immediate Delay Immediate Delay 0. 01 0. 04 0. 00 0. 01 0. 09 0. 1 9 0. 02 0. 03 0. 10 0. 17 0. 03 0. 05 0. 03 0. 04 0. 01 0. 02 -0. 08 0. 01 0. 02 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 ?Immediate Choosers Delayed Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 n the immediate condition. This produces differences between conditions in three measures of the CA relation: the visual appearance of calibration function, the O/U statistic, and the NRI statistic. First, the calibration curve for the immediate condition flattens out in the lower half of the confidence scale, rather than following the ideal func- tion. Further, the curve for the immediate condition shifts from overconfidence in the higher confidence intervals to underconfidence in the lower confidence intervals, a pattern not observed in the delayed condition.In addition to pro- ducing a visual flattening of the curve, this transition from overconfidence to underconfidence has important effects on two of the statistical measures of the CA relationship. It drives the immediate condition O/U statistic toward its mid-po int (i. e. , 0). Consequently, although the immediate condition curve exhibits noticeable underconfidence and overconfidence at the relevant extremes of the confidence scale, this is not reflected in the O/U statistic for that condition, thereby exaggerating the apparent difference in overconfidence between conditions.Finally, as evidenced by the NRI statistics (Table 2), it reduces the overall level of discrimination provided by confidence in the immediate condition. This discrepancy between conditions at the lower confidence extremes is addressed further in the ‘‘Discussion’’. The second difference between the CA relations for choosers in the delayed and immediate conditions is evident in the diagnosticity ratios reported for each confidence interval (Table 1).Consistent with the reported overall drop in identification accuracy associated with the delayed con- dition, the degree of diagnosticity at each confidence interval is greater in the immediate than delayed condition. Further, although no difference in overconfidence is appar- ent between conditions in the higher confidence brackets, the difference in diagnosticity persists. Nonetheless, as outlined above, the finding of increased diagnosticity with increased confidence is consistent (for choosers) across conditions.In sum, the CA relations observed for choosers in the two retention interval conditions differ in terms of the Confidence 100 80 60 40 20 ?Immediate Non-Choosers Delayed Non-Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Confidence Fig. 1 Confidence–accuracy (CA) calibration curves for choosers (upper panel) and non-choosers (lower panel) in the delayed and immediate testing conditions. Error bars represent standard errors draw inferences in conditions where data violate assump- tions of conventional inferential testing techniques (Sheskin, 2004).Because the jackknife means replicated the original values in every case, only the original values are reported. Inspection of the calibration functions, together with the O/U statistics (Table 2), suggests greater overconfidence for the delayed compared to the immediate condition. However, two aspects of the calibration information justify qualification of this general observation. First, for the two highest confidence categories, the standard error bars for the two functions overlap suggesting no meaningful dif- ference in over/underconfidence.The applied value of this similarity at the higher confidence intervals is addressed in the ‘‘Discussion’’. Second, the overall difference in over- confidence between conditions is, in fact, exaggerated by underconfidence in the lower half of the calibration curve 123 % Correct % Correct 344 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?general overconfidence and discriminability, due primarily to the trend toward underconfidence at low confidence levels in the immediate condition. However, in the upper half of the confidence scale, the conditions pr oduce highly similar calibration functions.For non-choosers, both retention interval conditions produced the typically weak CA relations observed in previous CA calibration research. Further, any variations in diagnosticity between confidence levels were small and unsystematic in both conditions. While this absence of resolution might normally be taken as an indication that a confident rejection should not be given any special status, this needs to be considered in the context of accuracy rates for rejections usually being high. Thus, from an applied perspective, provided the conditions are such that non-chooser accuracy is high (e. . , unbiased lineup instructions, good encoding conditions), it is important to note that a highly confident rejection is as good a guide to (in)accuracy as a confident ID. Importantly also, an unconfident rejection is also likely to be as accu- rate as a confident ID. The CA correlation patterns are generally in line with previous research (e. g. , Lind say et al. , 1998; Sporer et al. , 1995). CA correlations of moderate strength were found for choosers in both the immediate (r (405) = 0. 32, p . 001) and delayed conditions (r (209) = 0. 41, p . 001).While these values lie toward the high end of typically reported CA correlations, the relationships are still only moderate in size. Consistent with previous research, correlations for non-choosers were weak and non-significant in both the immediate (r (286) = . 09, ns) and delayed conditions (r (163) = . 06, ns). DISCUSSION While the dominant perspective in eyewitness identifica- tion research has been that the CA relationship is, at best, a weak one, recent research—underpinned by theoretically motivated changes in design and analysis techniques—has demonstrated meaningful CA relationships when certain pre-conditions are met.The present study extends this research, providing an important test of the boundary conditions of the CA relation. Variation in retention inter val is (a) theoretically linked to variation in memory quality (and, thus, confidence and accuracy), (b) typical in the forensic setting, and (c) atypical in psychological investigations of the CA relation. Further, the emphasis placed on confidence when assessing the reliability of identification evidence in the forensic setting makes the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship an issue of applied and theoretical relevance.The most striking feature of our examination of the effect of retention interval on the CA relationship is the consistency of the findings across retention interval con- ditions. Consistent with previous calibration research in the eyewitness and face recognition paradigms (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), confidence and accuracy were meaningfully related for choosers in both the immediate and delayed conditions, particularly in the upper half of the confidence scal e.Further, both conditions show systematic increases in diagnosticity with increased witness confidence. Compared to the immediate condition, the delayed condition demonstrated an increase in general overconfidence and a decrease in the absolute levels of diagnosticity. However, such differences are equally likely to occur when retention interval is held constant but target stimuli or instructional bias are varied (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006).Of primary importance is the finding that the fundamental nature of the CA relationship, as evidenced by the shape of the calibration functions and the systematic relationship between confidence and diagnosticity, did not vary meaningfully between conditions. As Bruck and Poole (2002) note, albeit it in a different context, when assessing consistency across conditions, patterns of findings are often more informative than individual numbers. While our conclusions may be similar to those of Juslin et al. 1996) in that CA calibration was still e vident when the retention interval was extended, our findings add sig- nificantly to our understanding of the effect of retention interval on the CA relation. Whereas there was no evidence that Juslin et al. ’s retention interval manipulation affected memory strength, our manipulation clearly affected rec- ognition memory performance and yet evidence of CA calibration persisted. Moreover, CA calibration was evi- dent at the longer retention interval in our study, despite the absence of several methodological features contained in Juslin et al. s research that may have buttressed the CA calibration detected at their longer retention interval. This suggests that these idiosyncrasies were not sufficient to affect the CA association. Additionally, by providing data from a field setting using multiple sets of encoding and test materials, our study provides an important pointer to the likely generality of the above conclusions. The improved diagnosticity in both retention interval conditions evident at the upper confidence levels has significant forensic implications.Highly confident identi- fications, when compared to those made with low confidence, are likely to have a greater impact on police investigations and jury decision making. For example, in the absence of other compelling evidence, police are more likely to proceed with a case given a highly confident identification than given an identification made with low confidence. Further, compared to an identification made with low confidence, an identification made with high confidence is likely to be more persuasive in the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 345 courtroom, and thus exert a more pronounced effect on juror assessments of likely guilt. Thus, it is reassuring that the identification decisions likely to exert the greatest influence in criminal justice system are those for which (a) diagnosticity is greatest and (b) there was no significant variation in CA relationship associated with inc reased retention interval. We emphasize here, of course, that we are talking only about relationships detected when confi- dence was measured and recorded immediately after the identification, and not when opportunities for influencing confidence judgments had occurred.A potentially interesting difference between the CA relations obtained in the two conditions presents in the lower half of the confidence scale for the chooser curves. As previously outlined, while the immediate condition curve exhibited underconfidence in the lower confidence levels, the delayed condition curve maintained its resem- blance to the ideal function (i. e. , low confidence ratings were accompanied by equivalently poor identification performance). As noted earlier, confidence judgments may be shaped not only by memory strength but also by various non-memorial factors.It may be the case that, because the immediate condition provided virtually no time for the memory trace to degrade, very low confidence esti mates in this condition reflected the influence of misleading meta- cognitive inferences. In contrast, the delayed condition allowed for significantly greater degradation in memory trace, and, consequently, a greater drop in identification accuracy than did the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, very low confidence was perhaps more likely to reflect poor memory quality and, consequently, predict very poor performance.Thus, in this condition, confidence and accuracy corresponded more closely at the lower confidence levels, and the overall level of confidence-based discrimination increased (as evidenced by the NRI statis- tics). The improved resolution associated with the longer retention interval in the present study supports claims made by Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) that the CA relation (and, in particular, resolution) is likely to be most evident in con- ditions that produce greatest variability in witnesses’ memory strength.However, given the low number of data points for these confidence categories, any conclusions must be tentative. Moreover, from an applied perspective, the data clearly show that low confidence identifications are associated with low accuracy (regardless of the exis- tence of over- or underconfidence). We should note three features of this study that might possibly have influenced the pattern of results obtained. First, despite email reminders to participants in the delay condition, there was still significant attrition.If it turns out that those conscientious enough to respond were also more conscientious—and, importantly, effective—when deter- mining confidence judgments, then it is conceivable that the strength of the CA relation is overestimated in our delay condition. However, we know of no evidence that could sustain an argument either way on this issue. Second, our retention interval manipulation was confounded with method of responding. Participants in the immediate test condition provided their r esponses during face-to-face interactions with the researcher, while delayed condition participants responded via computer.As previously noted, social influence can undermine the confidence–accuracy relationship. However, given (a) the similarity of CA rela- tionships evident between conditions in this experiment and (b) the similarity in CA relationships between the imme- diate condition in this experiment and previous work using similar (i. e. , relatively short though not immediate) reten- tion intervals and non-face-to-face responding (Brewer & Wells, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), there is no reason to believe that method of responding exerted a significant effect on the results obtained.Third, for ethical reasons the encoded event in our field study did not involve a crime. Whether this might influence the CA relationship is also not known, though there is no obvious reason why this variable should interact with retention interval. What we do know, of course, is that the most reliable determinant of variations in the degree of over/underconfidence is task difficulty (see Brewer, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2004), with our various stimuli providing tasks of sufficient difficulty to produce over- rather than under-confidence and, predict- ably, greater overconfidence in the delay condition.In sum, this research asked: Does an increase in retention interval undermine the meaningful CA relationships reported in recent research? These results suggest not, at least not for retention intervals in the range used here. For choosers in both the delayed and immediate conditions, increased confidence was associated with increased proba- ble accuracy. While this finding is encouraging, one important caveat is required. Although retention interval did not affect the CA relationship observed, many factors capable of distorting the CA relation over time in the forensic setting (e. g. confirming feedback/interaction with co-witnesses, repeated post-event quest ioning) were not addressed in our approach. It would be premature to suggest that, in the forensic setting, confidence-based discrimina- tion of accuracy will not ever vary with increased retention interval. Simply increasing retention does not, by itself, seem to dampen the CA relation, but increased retention intervals may be associated with increased exposure to other factors likely to affect the relationship between con- fidence and accuracy. Moreover, it should be noted that retention intervals long enough to reduce identification accuracy to chance levels (i. . , likely much longer than in this study) would constrain variation in accuracy, reducing the extent to which confidence can discriminate accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. 123 346 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?Acknowledgments This research was supported by grant DP0556876 from the Australian Research Council and a Flinders Research Grant. We are grateful to Monica Beshara, Megan Cant, Danielle Chant, Kelly Ferber, Suzana Freegard, Caitlin Hithcock, Michaela O’Keefe, Lucy Pillay, Carla Raphael, Nancy Whitaker, and Anneke Woods for their assistance with data collection. REFERENCESBothwell, R. K. , Deffenbacher, K. A. , & Brigham, J. C. (1987). Correlations of eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Optimality hypothesis revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 691– 695. Bradfield, A. L. , & Wells, G. L. (2000). The perceived validity of eyewitness identification testimony: A test of the five Biggers criteria. Law & Human Behavior, 24, 581–594. Bradfield, A. L. , Wells, G. L. , & Olson, E. A. (2002). The damaging effect of confirming feedback on the relation between eyewitness certainty and identification accuracy. Journal of Applied Psy- chology, 87, 112–120. Brewer, N. (2006).Uses and abuses of eyewitness identification confidence. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 11, 3–23. Brewer, N. , & Burke, A. (2002). Effects of testimonial inco nsistencies and eyewitness confidence on mock-juror judgements. Law & Human Behavior, 26, 353–364. Brewer, N. , Keast, A. , & Rishworth, A. (2002). The confidence- accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification: The effects of reflection and disconfirmation on correlation and calibration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 44–56. Brewer, N. , Weber, N. , & Semmler, C. (2007). A role for theory in eyewitness identification research.In R. C. L. Lindsay, D. F. Ross, J. D. Read, & M. P. Toglia (Eds. ), The handbook of eyewitness psychology: Volume II. Memory for people (pp. 210– 218). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brewer, N. , & Wells, G. L. (2006). The confidence-accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification: Effects of lineup instructions, functional size and target-absent base rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12, 11–30. Bruck, M. , & Poole, D. A. (2002). Introduction to the special issue on forensic devel opmental psychology. Developmental Review, 22, 331–333. Busey, T. A. , Tunnicliff, J. , Loftus, G. R. & Loftus, E. F. (2000). Accounts of the confidence-accuracy relation in recognition memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7, 26–48. Clark, S. E. , Howell, R. , & Davey, S. L. (2008). Regularities in eyewitness identification. Law & Human Behavior, 32, 187–203. Cutler, B. L. , & Penrod, S. D. (1995). Mistaken identification: The eyewitness, psychology, and the law. New York: Cambridge University Press. Cutler, B. L. , Penrod, S. D. , & Stuve, T. E. (1988). Jury decision making in eyewitness identification cases. Law & Human Behavior, 12, 41–56. Deffenbacher, K. A. , Bornstein, B. H. , McGorty, E. K. , & Penrod, S. 2008). Forgetting the once-seen face: Estimating the strength of an eyewitness’s memory representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14, 139–150. Deffenbacher, K. A. , & Loftus, E. F. (1982). Do jurors share a commo n understanding concerning eyewitness behavior? Law & Human Behavior, 6, 15–30. Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Dover (Original work published 1895). Egan, J. P. (1958). Recognition memory and the operating charac- teristic (No. Tech. Rep. No. AFCRC-TN-58–51). Hearing and Communication Laboratory, Indiana University: Bloomington. Fleet, M.L. , Brigham, J. C. , & Bothwell, R. K. (1987). The confidence- accuracy relationship: The effects of confidence-accuracy and choosing. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 171–187. Green, D. M. , & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: Wiley. Innocence Project. (2009). Innocence project. Retrieved March 15, 2009, from http://www. innocenceproject. org/about/index. php. Juslin, P. , Olsson, N. , & Winman, A. (1996). Calibration and diagnosticity of confidence in eyewitness identification: Com- ments on what can be inferred from the low confidence-accuracy correlation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 1304–1316. Kassin, S. M. (1985). Eyewitness identification: Retrospective self- awareness and the accuracy-confidence manipulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 878–893. Kassin, S. M. , Rigby, S. , & Castillo, S. R. (1991). The accuracy- confidence correlation in eyewitness testimony: Limits and extensions of the retrospective self-awareness effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 698–707. Koriat, A. , Lichtenstein, S. , & Fischhoff, B. (1980). Reasons for confidence.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learn- ing & Memory, 6, 107–118. Lindsay, D. S. , Nilsen, E. , & Read, J. D. (2000). Witnessing-condition heterogeneity and witnesses’ versus investigators’ confidence in the accuracy of witnesses’ identification decisions. Law & Human Behavior, 24, 685–697. Lindsay, D. S. , Read, J . D. , & Sharma, K. (1998). Accuracy and confidence in person identification: The relationship is strong when witnessing conditions vary widely. Psychological Science, 9, 215–218. Lindsay, R. C. L. , Wells, G. L. , & Rumpel, C. M. (1981). Can people detect eyewitness-identification accuracy within and across situations?Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 79–89. Macmillan, N. A. , & Creelman, C. D. (1991). Detection theory: A user’s guide. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mosteller, F. , & Tukey, J. W. (1968). Data analysis including statistics. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronsen (Eds. ), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 80–203). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley. Neil v. Biggers, 409 U. S. 188 (1972). Pike, G. , Brace, N. , & Kynan, S. (2002). The visual identification of suspects: Procedures and practice. (Briefing Note 2/02). Lon- don: Home Office. Sauer, J. D. , Brewer, N. , & Weber, N. (2008).Multiple confidence estimates as indices of eyewitness memory. Journal of Exper- imental Psychology: General, 137, 528–547. Sauerland, M. , & Sporer, S. (2009). Fast and confident: Postdicting eyewitness identification accuracy in a field study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15, 46–62. Schacter, D. L. (1999). The seven sins of memory. American Psychologist, 54, 182–203. Shaw, J. S. (1996). Increases in eyewitness confidence resulting from postevent questioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 2, 126–146. Shaw, J. S. , & McClure, K. A. (1996). Repeated postevent uestioning can lead to elevated levels of eyewitness confidence. Law & Human Behavior, 20, 629–653. Sheskin, D. (2004). Handbook of parametric and non-parametric statistical procedures (3rd ed. ). Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Sporer, S. L. , Penrod, S. D. , Read, D. , & Cutler, B. L. (1995). Choosing, confidence, and accuracy: A meta-analysis of the confidence-accuracy relation in eyewitness identification stud ies. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 315–327. Van Zandt, T. (2000). ROC curves and confidence judgments in recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 582–600. 23 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 347 ?Vickers, D. (1979). Decision processes in visual perception. New York: Academic Press. Weber, N. , & Brewer, N. (2003). The effect of judgment type and confidence scale on confidence-accuracy calibration in face recognition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 490–499. Weber, N. , & Brewer, N. (2004). Confidence-accuracy calibration in absolute and relative face recognition judgements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10, 156–172. Weber, N. , & Brewer, N. (2006). Positive versus negative face recognition decisions: Confidence, accuracy and response latency.Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 17–31. Wells, G. L. (1993). What do we know about eyewitness identifica- tion? American Psychologist, 48, 553–571. Wells, G. L. , & Olson, E. A. (2002). Eyewitness identification: Information gain from incriminating and exonerating behaviors. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 155–167. Wells, G. L. , Small, M. , Penrod, S. , Malpass, R. S. , Fulero, S. M. , & Brimacombe, C. A. E. (1998). Eyewitness identification proce- dures: Recommendations for lineups and photo spreads. Law & Human Behavior, 22, 603–647.